Ureteral stents are used in a number of clinical urological procedures. However, despite the advantages, prolonged use is limited by biofilm formation and mineralogical encrustation. Biomaterials are commonly used in ureteral stents manufacture, however, the ideal material has yet to be discovered. Despite significant advances in basic science research involving biocompatibility issues and bio-film formation, the overall consensus is that bio-films lead to encrustation, in part due to the hydrolysis of urea. With respect to products currently on the market, time of implantation is associated with the general trend exhibiting an increase in the degree of encrustation with prolonged duration of implantation.

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